THE ORIGINS

Originated as a spin off from Korolev's OKB-1 production infrastructure, Yangel's design bureau in Dnepropetrovsk gained enough independence in the beginning of the 50's to initiate its own projects. The first major program both conceived and manufactured by Yangel's collective was medium range missile R-12. Seeking longer range for rockets with storable propellants, Yangel team proposed a design capitalizing on two Korolev's programs. Combination of nitric acid as oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel had been already tested on the short-range R-11 missile. However since the new R-12 was envisioned for about 2,000 km range, its dimensions and airframe was based on then most powerful Soviet rocket R-5. Yangel's OKB 586 participated in both projects as a subcontractor. Valentin Glushko, the head of major Soviet rocket engine center OKB-456 and long-time advocate of storable propellants proposed entirely new engine for the R-12, despite being already involved in development of powerplants for Korolev's R-7.

DEVELOPMENT

According to in-house written history of Yuzhnoye bureau, the R-12 project was approved on February 13, 1953 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR. Veteran of the early Soviet space program B. Chertok wrote that Yangel got governmental approval of the project in August 1955. In the Soviet industrial paperwork the vehicle was identified as 8K63, and in the Western classification the rocket became known as SS-4 Sandal. Like RD-107 engine conceived for R-7, the new powerplant for R-12 entitled RD-214 had four non-movable high pressure combustion chambers, allowing to increase thrust without building big chambers. RD-214 also featured centrifugal pumps and a turbine powered up by decay products of nitric acid. Tail rudders were chosen instead of traditional vernier engines to control the rocket in flight. Since the RD-214 cluster was too large to fit into diameter of the airframe inherited from R-5, a conical tail section was added to house the engine.

Nikolai Pilugin, the head of leading control system bureau, convinced Yangel to introduce fully-autonomous control system in the R-12 instead of traditional radio control requiring net of ground stations as was in the case with R-5 and R-7. Also the R-12 rocket was to be the first to carry a 1-megaton thermonuclear warhead instead 'regular' nuclear head installed on R-5.

TESTING

In March 1957, the R-12 was for the first time statically tested in Zagorsk. The first test launch of the missile came on June 22, 1957 in Kapustin Yar. In September 1958 Khrushchev personally arrived in Kapustin Yar to witness the launch of R-12, as well as its competitor R-5M. The latter had already been accepted into armaments at the time. It was a success and the next month mass production of the vehicle started in Dnipropetrovsk. Tests proved that with the new control system, average deviation from the target will not exceed 2.3 km. The total time of ground preparation was more than three hours. 

For the work on R-12, on July 10, 1959 Factory 586 and adjacent OKB 586 received Order of Lenin and Hero of Socialist Labor were awarded to Yangel, Smirnov and Budnik. R-12 was then modified (under code 63Sh) to test then new concept of silo-based missiles. A new underground launch complex code-named Majak-2 (Beacon-2) was constructed in Kapustin Yar. In September 1959, R-12 took off from a silo complex for the first time. Following December Strategic Rocket Forces were formed within the Soviet Army having R-12 as its first weapon.

INTO SPACE

Soon after launch of the first Soviet "Sputniks" both military and scientific organizations in the USSR expressed interest in sending small semi-experimental payloads into space using somewhat smaller rockets than R-7. Yangel's R-12 seemed to be the best candidate for transformation into such launcher. OKB 586 started work on the project encoded 63S1 as early as April 1960. On August 8, 1960 Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR signed a resolution approving R-12-based launch-vehicle as well as development of ten compatible satellites apparently for pure scientific research.

While R-12 itself needed minimal modifications to be used as the first stage of launch-vehicle, the upper stage for orbital injection had to be developed from scratch. Further, it had to compensate a major flaw of the first stage - low specific impulse - about 20 percent lower than that of Korolev's R-7 first stage engine. Again, Glushko's OKB-456 worked on an engine for the second stage. Known as RD-119, it had a single small-size combustion chamber with a disproportionally large nozzle allowing up to a 1,350 times expansion of the exhaust gases at the nozzle exit. The main engine turbopumps were driven by the gaseous products of decay of the fuel, not those of the oxidizer as is usually the case, After driving the pump, the exhaust stream was directed into the system of non-movable steering nozzles. Necessary steering control was achieved by changing the rate of exhaust through the corresponding nozzle by an electrically-driven gas distribution system These measures implemented in the second stage design allowed the necessary specific impulse the to be reached The stage separation systems was almost identical to that of Korolev's R-7 booster. It included an interstage truss structure allowing the ignition and free exhaust for the second stage engine seconds before the first stage separates. The second stage used liquid oxygen as an oxidizer and UDMH as fuel. The underground launch complex Majak-2 in Kapustin Yar was modified for two-stage 63S1 vehicle.

COSMOS PROGRAM

According to governmental decree, two rockets were assigned for for test launches. The first launch of the vehicle 63S1 # 1LK with satellite DS-2 (from Russian Dneprovskiy Sputnik) took place on October 26, 1961. It failed due to problems in flight control system. The second attempt followed on December 21, 1961. The active flight of the vehicle 63S1 # 2LK with a DS-2 satellite run smoothly until the engine on the second stage prematurely cut off. Investigation found that the rate at which oxidizer was evaporasing inside the stage when warmed up by the engine heat was higher than anticipated. As a result, the propellant was consumed early in flight and engine shot down at 353.3 seconds from launch. It took a special decision by the Minister of Armaments, Dimitry Ustinov, to proceed with further tests. On March 16, 1962 the the vehicle 63S1 #6LK successfully delivered satellite DS-2 into orbit. The official Soviet press announced the launch as Cosmos-1.

MILITARY EXPERIMENTS

Since the beginning of the '60s, R-12 missiles were used as targets for developing anti-missile defense system "A." On March 4, 1962, anti-missile V-1000 for the first time intercepted the R-12 missile. In July 1962, two R-12 rockets were used in the project K-1 and K-2. The vehicles were launched with live nuclear charges detonated in the upper atmosphere to test radar and other radio devices' performance. (27)

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

In October 1962 R-12 missiles appeared on the center stage of world's most dangerous stand-off, after Khrushchev's decision to place them on Cuba. B.Chertok in his memoirs (27) provided unique details on the crisis. Apparently bulk of information in the book comes from Smirnitsky, a senior scientist from rocket military institute NII-4 who was Chertok's friend. Smirnitsky led a group of the Soviet rocket experts headed by Marshall Biruyzov on an inspection trip to Cuba, before final decision to place missiles on the island had been made. Beginning in September 1962, 24 launchers for R-12 were being delivered to Cuba. They belonged to the 43rd Division of Strategic Rocket Troops of the Soviet Army. In addition, the division was due to receive 16 launchers with R-14 missiles. On October 4, 1962, the first R-12 was ready for fueling and mating with its nuclear warhead. By October 10, ten more missiles were ready and by October 20, 20 vehicles were on their positions. American reconnaissance planes discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba on October 14. Kennedy was informed on October 16, a week later ordered naval blockade of the island. At this time a convoy of Soviet ships carrying R-14 missiles and escorted by submarines left for Cuba. Chertok doubts reports about full readiness of the Soviet missiles in Cuba. Citing Smirnitsky, he wrote that none of the missiles had ever been mated to its warhead.

K-4 EXPERIMENT

The Cuban missile crisis was hardly resolved, when on October 28, 1962, another R-12 missile was launched with a live nuclear charge from Kapustin Yar. In experiment K-4, the nuclear device was detonated at the altitude of 150 km. According to the plan, two R-9 rockets launched from Tyuratam simultaneously with R-12 had to fly in the vicinity of the explosion. However, both R-9 missiles failed seconds after lift off.

SPACE OPERATIONS

Before the end of 1965 the launcher 63S1 successfully launched 22 payloads. By that time, Soviet military also got interested in the launcher developing a series of semi-experimental satellites. The special version of the rocket designated 63SM and underground launch complex Dvina in Kapustin Yar were assigned for the program. First test launch took place in October 1965.

At the meantime, the new above ground launch complex for the vehicle was being built in Plesetsk. Encoded "Raduga" (Rainbow) and designed specifically for the booster by Central Design Bureau of Transport Machine Building, the complex featured a set of unique hardware for handling five types of propellant and three types of gases including liquid nitrogen and heated up to 120°C air. Since the original rocket was developed for silo launches and had low tolerance for surface wind (no more then 10 meters per second), on the launch pad the vehicle was enclosed in a 45-meter-tall service tower on the railroad track. The tower was equipped with service bridges and a crane for handling payload.

The "Raduga" complex was used for the first time on March 16, 1967 to launch a new version of the booster designated 11K63. Despite four-hour delay due to high winds, a military satellite was successfully launched. It announced by the USSR as Cosmos-148. During the same year six more rockets were launched with military satellites DS-P1-I, DS-P1-U and DS-Y. In the following decade, version 11K63 used frequently to launch a variety of military and civilian satellites including highly publicized by the Soviets "Intercosmos" satellites built in cooperation with countries of the eastern block. Cosmos-918 was the last satellite launched by the vehicle on June 18, 1977. Since then the booster's role was taken over by more capable 65S3 launch-vehicle based on R-14 missile. Yet, in the open Soviet literature both launch-vehicles were referred as "Cosmos" sometimes creating confusion in the West.

Reference:

http://www.russianspace.com/kosmos.html

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